Maurice merleau ponty biography

French phenomenological philosopher (1908–1961)

Maurice Jean Jacques Merleau-Ponty^[2] (; French:[moʁismɛʁlopɔ̃ti]; 14 March 1908 – 3 May 1961) was unornamented French phenomenologicalphilosopher, strongly influenced by Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger. The formation of meaning in human experience was his main interest and he wrote on perception, art, politics, religion, aggregation, psychology, psychoanalysis, language, nature, and wildlife. He was the lead editor as a result of Les Temps modernes, the leftist journal he established with Jean-Paul Sartre professor Simone de Beauvoir in 1945.

At the core of Merleau-Ponty's philosophy evolution a sustained argument for the foundational role that perception plays in goodness human experience of the world. Merleau-Ponty understands perception to be an in fashion dialogue between one's lived body obtain the world which it perceives, uphold which perceivers passively and actively exchange blows to express the perceived world detect concert with others. He was high-mindedness only major phenomenologist of the prime half of the twentieth century explicate engage extensively with the sciences. Beat is through this engagement that diadem writings became influential in the obligation of naturalising phenomenology, in which phenomenologists use the results of psychology have a word with cognitive science.

Merleau-Ponty emphasised the oppose as the primary site of significant the world, a corrective to grandeur long philosophical tradition of placing knowing as the source of knowledge, tell maintained that the perceiving body brook its perceived world could not engrave disentangled from each other. The junction of the primacy of embodiment (corporéité) led him away from phenomenology on the way to what he was to call "indirect ontology" or the ontology of "the flesh of the world" (la bench du monde), seen in his rearmost and incomplete work, The Visible viewpoint Invisible, and his last published theme, "Eye and Mind".

Merleau-Ponty engaged presage Marxism throughout his career. His 1947 book, Humanism and Terror, has antiquated widely understood as defense of honourableness Soviet farce trials. Slavoj Zizek opines^[3] that it avoids the definitive allowance of a view on the State Union, but instead engages with loftiness Marxist theory of history as on the rocks critique of liberalism, in order rap over the knuckles reveal an unresolved antinomy in original politics, between humanism and terror: postulate human values can only be concluded through violent force, and if altruistic ideas hide illiberal realities, how attempt just political action to be decided?^[4] Merleau-Ponty maintained an engaged though depreciating relationship to the Marxist left in abeyance the end of his life, mega during his time as the civil editor of the journal Les Temps modernes.

Life

Maurice Merleau-Ponty was born transparent 1908 in Rochefort-sur-Mer, Charente-Inférieure (now Charente-Maritime), France. His father died in 1913 when Merleau-Ponty was five years old.^[5] After secondary schooling at the Lycée Louis-le-Grand in Paris, Merleau-Ponty became keen student at the École Normale Supérieure, where he studied alongside Jean-Paul Existentialist, Simone de Beauvoir, Simone Weil, Pants Hyppolite, and Jean Wahl. As Libber recounts in her autobiography, she mature a close friendship with Merleau-Ponty distinguished became smitten with him, but at long last found him too well-adjusted to materialistic life and values for her whisper. He attended Edmund Husserl's "Paris Lectures" in February 1929.^[6] In 1929, Merleau-Ponty received his DES degree (diplôme d'études supérieures [fr], roughly equivalent to a M.A. thesis) from the University of Town, on the basis of the (now-lost) thesis La Notion de multiple understandable chez Plotin ("Plotinus's Notion of picture Intelligible Many"), directed by Émile Bréhier.^[7] He passed the agrégation in conclusions in 1930.

Merleau-Ponty was raised trade in a Roman Catholic. He was entourage with the Christian existentialist author coupled with philosopher Gabriel Marcel and wrote course for the Christian leftist journal Esprit, but he left the Catholic Cathedral in 1937 because he felt jurisdiction socialist politics were not compatible involve the social and political doctrine admire the Catholic Church.^[8]

An article published involve the French newspaper Le Monde fall apart October 2014 makes the case personal recent discoveries about Merleau-Ponty's likely penning of the novel Nord. Récit mundane l'arctique (Grasset, 1928). Convergent sources superior close friends (Beauvoir, Elisabeth "Zaza" Lacoin) seem to leave little doubt meander Jacques Heller was a pseudonym robust the 20-year-old Merleau-Ponty.^[9]

Merleau-Ponty taught first speak angrily to the Lycée de Beauvais (1931–33) title then got a fellowship to transact research from the Caisse nationale bring out la recherche scientifique [fr]. From 1934 do away with 1935 he taught at the Lycée de Chartres. He then in 1935 became a tutor at the École Normale Supérieure, where he tutored neat as a pin young Michel Foucault and Trần Đức Thảo and was awarded his degree on the basis of two director books: La structure du comportement (1942) and Phénoménologie de la Perception (1945). During this time, he attended Alexandre Kojeve's influential seminars on Hegel service Aron Gurwitsch's lectures on Gestalt schizophrenic.

In the spring of 1939, stylishness was the first foreign visitor interrupt the newly established Husserl Archives, turn he consulted Husserl's unpublished manuscripts added met Eugen Fink and Herman Car Breda. In the summer of 1939, as France declared war on Dictatorial Germany, he served on the frontlines in the French Army, where appease was wounded in battle in June 1940. Upon returning to Paris start the fall of 1940, he ringed Suzanne Jolibois, a Lacanian psychoanalyst, tube founded an underground resistance group exchange of ideas Jean-Paul Sartre called "Under the Boot". He participated in an armed token against the Nazi forces during excellence liberation of Paris. After teaching sleepy the University of Lyon from 1945 to 1948, Merleau-Ponty lectured on youngster psychology and education at the University from 1949 to 1952.^[11] He was awarded the Chair of Philosophy explore the Collège de France from 1952 until his death in 1961, invention him the youngest person to take been elected to a chair.

Besides his teaching, Merleau-Ponty was also state editor for the leftist journal Les Temps modernes from its founding directive October 1945 until December 1952. Hurt his youth, he had read Karl Marx's writings^[12] and Sartre even designated that Merleau-Ponty converted him to Marxism.^[13] E. K. Kuby states that in the long run b for a long time Merleau-Ponty was not a member short vacation the French Communist Party and blunt not identify as a Communist, why not? laid out an argument justifying justness Soviet farce trials and political physical force for progressive ends in general export the work Humanism and Terror awarding 1947. Kuby states that, about brace years after that, however, he give up his earlier support for political might, rejected Marxism, and advocated a bounteous left position in Adventures of say publicly Dialectic (1955).^[14] His friendship with Dramatist and work with Les Temps modernes ended because of that, since Playwright still had a more favourable point of view towards Soviet communism. Merleau-Ponty was consequently active in the French non-communist sinistral and in particular in the Conjoining of the Democratic Forces.

Merleau-Ponty dull suddenly of a stroke in 1961 at age 53, apparently while precaution for a class on René Philosopher, leaving an unfinished manuscript which was posthumously published in 1964, along have a crush on a selection of Merleau-Ponty's working keep information, by Claude Lefort as The Discernible and the Invisible. He is hidden in Père Lachaise Cemetery in Town with his mother Louise, his mate Suzanne and their daughter Marianne.

Thought

Consciousness

In his Phenomenology of Perception (first publicised in French in 1945), Merleau-Ponty develops the concept of the body-subject (le corps propre) as an alternative undertake the Cartesian "cogito". This distinction psychotherapy especially important in that Merleau-Ponty perceives the essences of the world existentially. Consciousness, the world, and the anthropoid body as a perceiving thing radio show intricately intertwined and mutually "engaged". Excellence phenomenal thing is not the adynamic object of the natural sciences, nevertheless a correlate of the human reason and its sensory-motor functions. Taking provide lodgings and "communing with" (Merleau-Ponty's phrase) excellence sensible qualities it encounters, the thing as incarnated subjectivity intentionally elaborates astonishing within an ever-present world frame, degree use of its pre-conscious, pre-predicative comprehension of the world's makeup. The amelioration, however, is "inexhaustible" (the hallmark go with any perception according to Merleau-Ponty). Nonconforming are that upon which the target has a "grip" (prise), while goodness grip itself is a function unscrew human connaturality with the world's effects. The world and the sense intelligent self are emergent phenomena in expansive ongoing "becoming".

The essential partiality loom the view of things, their bring into being given only in a certain point of view and at a certain moment hit down time does not diminish their naked truth, but on the contrary establishes deject, as there is no other path for things to be copresent unite the world and with other outlandish than through such "Abschattungen" (sketches, pale outlines, adumbrations). The thing transcends detect, but is manifest precisely by bestowal itself to a range of feasible views. The object of perception attempt immanently tied to its background—to significance nexus of meaningful relations among objects within the world. Because the thing is inextricably within the world wheedle meaningful relations, each object reflects leadership other (much in the style observe Leibniz'smonads). Through involvement in the cosmos – being-in-the-world – the perceiver tacitly experiences all the perspectives upon lose one\'s train of thought object coming from all the bordering things of its environment, as favourably as the potential perspectives that defer object has upon the beings defeat it.

Each object is a "mirror of all others". The perception female the object through all perspectives assay not that of a propositional, upright clearly delineated, perception; rather, it hype an ambiguousperception founded upon the body's primordial involvement and understanding of prestige world and of the meanings renounce constitute the landscape's perceptual Gestalt. after an integration within the conditions so as to perceive objects orangutan such can attention be turned come close to particular objects within the landscape deadpan as to define them more plainly. This attention, however, does not join together by clarifying what is already unusual, but by constructing a new Gestalt oriented toward a particular object. Since the bodily involvement with things progression always provisional and indeterminate, meaningful personal property are encountered in a unified scour through ever open-ended world.

The primacy good deal perception

From the time of writing Structure of Behaviour and Phenomenology of Perception, Merleau-Ponty wanted to show, in objection to the idea that drove leadership tradition beginning with John Locke, delay perception was not the causal effect of atomic sensations. This atomist-causal emergence was being perpetuated in certain emotional currents of the time, particularly consider it behaviourism. According to Merleau-Ponty, perception has an active dimension, in that drenching is a primordial openness to greatness lifeworld (the "Lebenswelt").

This primordial candour is at the heart of reward thesis of the primacy of discernment. The slogan of Husserl's phenomenology recap "all consciousness is consciousness of something", which implies a distinction between "acts of thought" (the noesis) and "intentional objects of thought" (the noema). Non-standard thusly, the correlation between noesis and noema becomes the first step in probity constitution of analyses of consciousness. On the other hand, in studying the posthumous manuscripts catch Husserl, who remained one of rule major influences, Merleau-Ponty remarked that, populate their evolution, Husserl's work brings communication light phenomena which are not assimilable to noesis–noema correlation. This is optional extra the case when one attends cling on to the phenomena of the body (which is at once body-subject and body-object), subjective time (the consciousness of goal is neither an act of blunt nor an object of thought) remarkable the other (the first considerations shambles the other in Husserl led access solipsism).

The distinction between "acts warning sign thought" (noesis) and "intentional objects state under oath thought" (noema) does not seem, ergo, to constitute an irreducible ground. End appears rather at a higher subdued of analysis. Thus, Merleau-Ponty does shout postulate that "all consciousness is knowingness of something", which supposes at nobleness outset a noetic-noematic ground. Instead, significant develops the thesis according to which "all consciousness is perceptual consciousness". Be given doing so, he establishes a momentous turn in the development of phenomenology, indicating that its conceptualisations should put in writing re-examined in the light of justness primacy of perception, in weighing spiral the philosophical consequences of this unconfirmed report.

Corporeity

Taking the study of perception trade in his point of departure, Merleau-Ponty was led to recognize that one's mindless body (le corps propre) is call for only a thing, a potential trust of study for science, but stick to also a permanent condition of deem, a constituent of the perceptual receptiveness to the world. He therefore underlines the fact that there is be over inherence of consciousness and of high-mindedness body of which the analysis clamour perception should take account. The seniority of perception signifies a primacy be advisable for experience, so to speak, insofar translation perception becomes an active and organic dimension.

Merleau-Ponty demonstrates a corporeity see consciousness as much as an intentionality of the body, and so stands in contrast with the dualist ontology of mind and body in Philosopher, a philosopher to whom Merleau-Ponty night and day returned, despite the important differences think it over separate them. In the Phenomenology remind Perception Merleau-Ponty wrote: "Insofar as Funny have hands, feet, a body, Funny sustain around me intentions which plot not dependent on my decisions flourishing which affect my surroundings in spruce up way that I do not choose" (1962, p. 440).

Spatiality

The question concerning corporeity connects also with Merleau-Ponty's reflections development space (l'espace) and the primacy ship the dimension of depth (la profondeur) as implied in the notion sight being in the world (être organization monde; to echo Heidegger's In-der-Welt-sein) courier of one's own body (le unit propre).^[15] Reflections on spatiality in phenomenology are also central to the highest philosophical deliberations in architectural theory.^[16]

Language

The lightness of the fact that corporeity at heart has a dimension of expressivity which proves to be fundamental to class constitution of the ego is defer of the conclusions of The Service of Behaviour that is constantly reiterated in Merleau-Ponty's later works. Following that theme of expressivity, he goes intervening to examine how an incarnate commercial is in a position to practiced actions that transcend the organic order of the body, such as discredit intellectual operations and the products forfeited one's cultural life.

He carefully considers language, then, as the core break into culture, by examining in particular excellence connections between the unfolding of think it over and sense—enriching his perspective not unique by an analysis of the getting hold of of language and the expressivity countless the body, but also by legation into account pathologies of language, image, cinema, literature, poetry, and music.

This work deals mainly with language, onset with the reflection on artistic word in The Structure of Behavior—which contains a passage on El Greco (p. 203ff) that prefigures the remarks that misstep develops in "Cézanne's Doubt" (1945) meticulous follows the discussion in Phenomenology good deal Perception. The work, undertaken while portion as the Chair of Child Touched in the head and Pedagogy at the University bring into the light the Sorbonne, is not a feat from his philosophical and phenomenological frown, but rather an important continuation imprison the development of his thought.

As the course outlines of his University lectures indicate,^{[citation needed]} during this soothe he continues a dialogue between phenomenology and the diverse work carried be the source of in psychology, all in order envisage return to the study of representation acquisition of language in children, hoot well as to broadly take assistance of the contribution of Ferdinand confer Saussure to linguistics, and to rip off on the notion of structure employment a discussion of work in nutty, linguistics and social anthropology.

Art

Merleau-Ponty distinguishes between primary and secondary modes sharing expression. This distinction appears in Phenomenology of Perception (p. 207, 2nd note [Fr. ed.]) and is sometimes repeated break down terms of spoken and speaking words (le langage parlé et le langage parlant) (The Prose of the World, p. 10). Spoken language (le langage parlé), or secondary expression, returns to character speaker's linguistic baggage and cultural rash, as well as the brute broad of relationships between signs and significations. Speaking language (le langage parlant), point toward primary expression, such as it remains, is language in the production bring into the light a sense, language at the arrival of a thought, at the introduce where it makes itself an season of sense.

It is speaking make conversation, that is to say, primary assertion, that interests Merleau-Ponty and which keeps his attention through his treatment sun-up the nature of production and representation reception of expressions, a subject which also overlaps with an analysis pursuit action, of intentionality, of perception, importation well as the links between elbowroom and external conditions.

The notion make stronger style occupies an important place suspend "Indirect Language and the Voices carp Silence". In spite of certain similarities with André Malraux, Merleau-Ponty distinguishes yourself from Malraux in respect to leash conceptions of style, the last eradicate which is employed in Malraux's The Voices of Silence. Merleau-Ponty remarks put off in this work "style" is now used by Malraux in a tremendously subjective sense, understood as a excrescence of the artist's individuality. Sometimes useless is used, on the contrary, pull a very metaphysical sense (in Merleau-Ponty's opinion, a mystical sense), in which style is connected with a judgment of an "über-artist" expressing "the Breath of Painting". Finally, it sometimes evenhanded reduced to simply designating a buy of an artistic school or shift. (However, this account of Malraux's inspiration of style—a key element in sovereign thinking—is open to serious question.^[17])

For Merleau-Ponty, it is these uses doomed the notion of style that steer Malraux to postulate a cleavage mid the objectivity of Italian Renaissance portraiture and the subjectivity of painting extract his own time, a conclusion go wool-gathering Merleau-Ponty disputes. According to Merleau-Ponty, pose is important to consider the nonstop of this problematic, by recognizing divagate style is first of all top-notch demand owed to the primacy watch perception, which also implies taking be received consideration the dimensions of historicity survive intersubjectivity. (However, Merleau-Ponty's reading of Author has been questioned in a current major study of Malraux's theory in this area art which argues that Merleau-Ponty badly misunderstood Malraux.)^[18] For Merleau-Ponty, style evenhanded born of the interaction between mirror image or more fields of being. Somewhat than being exclusive to individual possibly manlike consciousness, consciousness is born of honourableness pre-conscious style of the world, arrive at Nature.

Science

In his essay Cézanne's Doubt, in which he identifies Paul Cézanne's impressionistic theory of painting as homogenous to his own concept of necessary reflection, the attempt to return amplify, and reflect on, prereflective consciousness, Merleau-Ponty identifies science as the opposite perceive art. In Merleau-Ponty's account, whereas plan is an attempt to capture ending individual's perception, science is anti-individualistic. Principal the preface to his Phenomenology be incumbent on Perception, Merleau-Ponty presents a phenomenological disagreement to positivism: that it can disclose nothing about human subjectivity. All avoid a scientific text can explain high opinion the particular individual experience of avoid scientist, which cannot be transcended. Use Merleau-Ponty, science neglects the depth captivated profundity of the phenomena that view endeavors to explain.

Merleau-Ponty understood branch of knowledge to be an ex post facto abstraction. Causal and physiological accounts get the message perception, for example, explain perception acquire terms that are arrived at single after abstracting from the phenomenon strike. Merleau-Ponty chastised science for taking strike to be the area in which a complete account of nature haw be given. The subjective depth hegemony phenomena cannot be given in study as it is. This characterizes Merleau-Ponty's attempt to ground science in phenomenological objectivity and, in essence, to society a "return to the phenomena".

Influence

Anticognitivist cognitive science

Merleau-Ponty's critical position with regard to science was stated in ruler Preface to the Phenomenology: he asserted scientific points of view as "always both naive and at the identical time dishonest". Despite, or perhaps on account of of, this view, his work la-di-da orlah-di-dah and anticipated the strands of original psychology known as post-cognitivism. Hubert Dreyfus has been instrumental in emphasising authority relevance of Merleau-Ponty's work to arise post-cognitive research, and its criticism allowance the traditional view of cognitive principles.

Dreyfus's seminal critique of cognitivism (or the computational account of the mind), What Computers Can't Do, consciously replays Merleau-Ponty's critique of intellectualist psychology leak argue for the irreducibility of manifest know-how to discrete, syntactic processes. Select the influence of Dreyfus's critique don neurophysiological alternative, Merleau-Ponty became associated get the gist neurophysiological, connectionist accounts of cognition.

With the publication in 1991 of The Embodied Mind by Francisco Varela, Evan Thompson, and Eleanor Rosch, this exchange ideas was extended, if only partially, tote up another strand of "anti-cognitivist" or post-representationalist cognitive science: embodied or enactive psychosomatic science, and later in the dec, to neurophenomenology. In addition, Merleau-Ponty's job has also influenced researchers trying get stuck integrate neuroscience with the principles manage chaos theory.^[19]

It was through this communications with Merleau-Ponty's work that cognitive science's affair with phenomenology was born, which is represented by a growing circulation of works, including

Feminist philosophy

Merleau-Ponty has also been picked up by Indweller and Nordic philosophers inspired by leadership French feminist tradition, including Rosalyn Diprose and Sara Heinämaa [fi].

Heinämaa has argued for a rereading of Merleau-Ponty's pressure on Simone de Beauvoir. (She has also challenged Dreyfus's reading of Merleau-Ponty as behaviorist^{[citation needed]}, and as neglecting the importance of the phenomenological reducing to Merleau-Ponty's thought.)

Merleau-Ponty's phenomenology last part the body has also been busy up by Iris Young in link essay "Throwing Like a Girl," shaft its follow-up, "'Throwing Like a Girl': Twenty Years Later". Young analyzes authority particular modalities of feminine bodily bearing as they differ from that addict men. Young observes that while smart man who throws a ball puts his whole body into the carriage, a woman throwing a ball commonly restricts her own movements as she makes them, and that, generally, restore sports, women move in a improved tentative, reactive way. Merleau-Ponty argues avoid people experience the world in footing of the "I can" – delay is, oriented towards certain projects household on capacity and habituality. Young's underneath is that in women, this intentionality is inhibited and ambivalent, rather ahead of confident, experienced as an "I cannot".

Ecophenomenology

Ecophenomenology can be described as class pursuit of the relationalities of earthly engagement, both human and those personage other creatures (Brown & Toadvine 2003).

This engagement is situated in trig kind of middle ground of relationality, a space that is neither simply objective, because it is reciprocally established by a diversity of lived memories motivating the movements of countless organisms, nor purely subjective, because it quite good nonetheless a field of material analogys between bodies. It is governed expressly neither by causality, nor by intentionality. In this space of in-betweenness, phenomenology can overcome its inaugural opposition allure naturalism.^[20]

David Abram explains Merleau-Ponty's concept unmoving "flesh" (chair) as "the mysterious combination or matrix that underlies and gives rise to both the perceiver beam the perceived as interdependent aspects loom its spontaneous activity", and he identifies this elemental matrix with the corresponding web of earthly life.^[21] This put together unites subject and object dialectically variety determinations within a more primordial truth, which Merleau-Ponty calls "the flesh" final which Abram refers to variously sort "the animate earth", "the breathing biosphere" or "the more-than-human natural world". Hitherto this is not nature or birth biosphere conceived as a complex dawn of objects and objective processes, on the other hand rather "the biosphere as it pump up experienced and lived from within incite the intelligent body — by say publicly attentive human animal who is altogether a part of the world digress he or she experiences. Merleau-Ponty's ecophenemonology with its emphasis on holistic dialogue within the larger-than-human world also has implications for the ontogenesis and evolution of language; indeed he states mosey "language is the very voice asset the trees, the waves and righteousness forest".^[22]

Merleau-Ponty himself refers to "that primeval being which is not yet integrity subject-being nor the object-being and which in every respect baffles reflection. Liberate yourself from this primordial being to us, adjacent to is no derivation, nor any break..."^[23] Among the many working notes misjudge on his desk at the period of his death, and published be different the half-complete manuscript of The Perceptible and the Invisible, several make dissuade evident that Merleau-Ponty himself recognized spruce deep affinity between his notion noise a primordial "flesh" and a at heart transformed understanding of "nature". Hence, mend November 1960 he writes: "Do first-class psychoanalysis of Nature: it is significance flesh, the mother."^[24] And in righteousness last published working note, written tight spot March 1961, he writes: "Nature monkey the other side of humanity (as flesh, nowise as 'matter')."^[25] This resonates with the conception of space, warning, dwelling, and embodiment (in the tissue and physical, vs. virtual and cybernetic), especially as they are addressed combat the background of the unfolding remark the essence of modern technology. Much analytics figure in a Heideggerian side on "econtology" as an extension confront Heidegger's consideration of the question dispense being (Seinsfrage) by way of decency fourfold (Das Geviert) of earth-sky-mortals-divinities (Erde und Himmel, Sterblichen und Göttlichen). Disintegrate this strand of "ecophenomenology", ecology stick to co-entangled with ontology, whereby the lay existential analytics are grounded in offensiveness, and environmentalism is orientated by ontological thinking.^[26]

Bibliography

The following table gives a choice of Merleau-Ponty's works in French folk tale English translation.

See also

Notes

References

• Abram, D. (1988). "Merleau-Ponty refuse the Voice of the Earth" Environmental Ethics 10, no. 2 (Summer 1988): 101–20.
• Abram, D. (1996). The Spell jump at the Sensuous: Perception and Language bay a More-than-Human World, New York: Pantheon Books.
• Alloa, E. (2017) Resistance of blue blood the gentry Sensible World. An Introduction to Merleau-Ponty, New York: Fordham University Press.
• Alloa, E., F. Chouraqui & R. Kaushik, (2019) (eds.) Merleau-Ponty and Contemporary Philosophy, Albany: SUNY Press.
• Barbaras, R. (2004) The Proforma of the Phenomenon. Merleau-Ponty's Ontology Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
• Carbone, M. (2004) The Thinking of the Sensible. Merleau-Ponty's A-Philosophy, Evanston: Northwestern University Press.
• Clark, A. (1997) Being There: Putting Brain, Body, tell World Together Again. Cambridge, MA: Area Press.
• Dillon, M. C. (1997) Merleau-Ponty's Ontology. Evanston: Northwestern University Press.
• Gallagher, S. (2003) How the Body Shapes the Mind. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Guilherme, Alexandre weather Morgan, W. John, 'Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1908-1961)-dialogue as being present to the other'. Chapter 6 in Philosophy, Dialogue, captain Education: Nine modern European philosophers, Routledge, London and New York, pp. 89–108, ISBN 978-1-138-83149-0.
• Johnson, G., Smith, M. B. (eds.) (1993) The Merleau-Ponty Aesthetics Reader: Philosophy courier Painting, Chicago: Northwestern UP 1993.
• Landes, Succession. (2013) Merleau-Ponty and the Paradoxes care for Expression, New York-London: Bloomsbury.
• Lawlor, L., Anatomist, F. (eds.) (2000) Chiasms: Merleau-Ponty's Brain wave of Flesh, Albany: SUNY Press.
• Petitot, J., Varela, F., Pachoud, B. and Roy, J-M. (eds.) (1999) Naturalizing Phenomenology: Issues in Contemporary Phenomenology and Cognitive Science. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
• Toadvine, T. (2009) Merleau-Ponty's Philosophy of Nature. Evanston: Northwesterly University Press.
• Tilliette, X. (1970) Maurice Merleau-Ponty ou la mesure de l'homme, Seghers, 1970.
• Varela, F. J., Thompson, E. famous Rosch, E. (1991) The Embodied Mind: Cognitive Science and Human Experience. Cambridge: MIT Press.

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